A "popular-spirited" history done during my time at the Buffalo Bill Memorial Museum in Golden, Colorado. Still, if you look through some of the simplistic prose and argumentation you may find a compelling argument somewhere in there regarding how the Wild West and Buffalo Bill played a significant and positive role in the conception of Native Americans. Unfortunately for the presentation, you may have to look hard to find it exactly "compelling." But try, won't you?

Buffalo Bill and Native Americans

The period from 1880 to 1910 was of great historical significance for the American West. The vast frontier "officially" had been conquered. Native Americans had been forced onto reservation lands, and a colorful band of performers known as Buffalo Bill's Wild West had formed perhaps the most popular traveling show on earth. Indeed, people knew little about the "real" wild West, but their curiosity regarding this rapidly-changing region was profound.

It is therefore unsurprising that Wild West audiences were so universally fascinated by Native Americans. Whites and Native Americans no longer fought in open conflict, and the two cultures now had to reconcile themselves with co-existence. In this respect, Cody's shows were much more than mere spectacle. They offered the general public a unique, personal experience of Native American history, culture, and lifestyle. And by presenting this information in entertaining -- though somewhat biased -- fashion, the Wild West laid the foundation for the entire "western" genre of books and movies in the twentieth century.

Rightly or wrongly, this presentation of Native Americans in Buffalo Bill's Wild West became the standard view throughout the world. People saw "Indians" as William Cody had presented them, and the consequences of this legacy were both widespread and long-lasting.

The purpose of this essay, then, is to examine the way in which Cody's show portrayed the Native Americans, and how Cody himself felt towards them. The final picture does not make Cody into a hero or a villain, as traces of both can be found in his personality. Overall, however, the man known as Buffalo Bill can be viewed as a friend of the Native American, and the Wild West reluctantly can be recognized as an important vehicle in the advancement and improvement of white-Native American relations.

It is difficult to get a true sense of how Cody felt about Native Americans by simply reviewing the biographical facts of his life. As a boy in Kansas, for instance, he boasted great friendships with young braves from the nearby Kickapoo Indian tribe, even learning to speak their language. But he also claimed to have killed an Indian... at the age of eleven. Which one of these incidents points to the "real" Billy Cody?

The answer is probably both. The frontier in the mid-1800's still was not a safe place to live, and settlers had to prepare themselves for the possibility of conflict with the Indians. The type of warfare mentality created a feeling of distrust and hostility on both sides. At the same time, however, the day-to-day interaction between Native Americans and whites -- through trading, for instance -- eased some of the more blatant prejudices of the period. The result? A contradictory mixture of friendship and distrust, fear and respect, hostility and esteem.

Though there were some considerable changes in Cody's Wild West shows over the years, one factor remained constant: the inclusion of Native Americans. Buffalo Bill hoped to make his shows as true to the "real" wild West as possible, and this meant that the importance of Native Americans had to be included.

Although it would have been far easier simply to hire white actors to play the role of Indians, Cody refused to allow this. He did so not for mere marketing purposes (though he did advertise his was the only show with "real Indians"), but rather out of a respect for their unique cultural heritage, which no white man could possibly mimic. "I can put a pair of boots, a bit hat, and a red shirt on any man, call him a cowboy," Cody once told a reporter, "but I cannot dress anyone up and call him an Indian." To Cody, the quality of "Indian-ness" was not superficial, but was tangible and real. It was also apparently fragile, as Cody's general policy was to hire actors for only a single season, for he felt such touring lessened their "Indian" qualities. The only Native Americans allowed to stay longer were those employed as translators or trainers for the new recruits.

Each year Cody hired somewhere between 40 and 120 Native Americans for his Wild West, depending on the overall size of his troupe and how well the show had been doing. Throughout the early years, he hired from many various tribes. Pawnee, Arapaho, Sioux, Kiowa, and Cheyenne were all represented at one time or another. Cody eventually found, however, that such mixing caused much intertribal conflict. Therefore, in 1891 Cody began a policy of hiring mostly from a single tribe: the Oglala Sioux.

He followed a uniform mode of hiring performers. After receiving initial approval by the U.S. Department of the Interior, an agent of the Wild West was sent to the Pine Ridge and/or Rosebud Indian reservations. Upon his arrival, the agent would chose from among the many applicants. Once the initial offer of employment was made, the prospective performer was issued a written contract, which a Native American interpreter translated for him/her. In it, Cody made a solemn promise that each individual would be treated well, fully supported, and returned home in good health. Also, a portion of each man's pay was to be sent home for the support of his family. In return, the Native American actors were asked to follow three guidelines: to perform in all shows, to abide by all rules and regulations, and to remain sober while on tour. Their efforts would earn them a salary of $25 per month, rather respectable for the time.

With all Native American tribes under the official supervision of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Indian Affairs, Cody's use of Sioux actors had to be formally approved by the government. Although initially there were worries about mistreatment, exploitation, and possible outbreaks of Indian violence, the government eventually came to support Cody's work wholeheartedly. As Cody said in an interview, "the theory of the government's management of the Indian is that he should be made self-supporting. Therefore, when I employ Indians and comply with the agreement...to feed, clothe, and pay them for their services, we are advancing in a practical way the ideas of the government."

Moreover, the government hoped that touring with Buffalo Bill's Wild West would help to "civilize" the Native Americans. "They will see what they have never dreamed of," said Cody. "They will learn of the comforts of civilization and when they return to their tribes their influence will have a more beneficial effect than with any other agency employed. For they are all great chiefs and their words have tremendous weight with their braves."

Occasionally, there were reports of mistreatment of the Native American performers, yet they always proved false. In 1890, for instance, the New York Herald reported outrageous cruelty towards Native Americans in a tour of Europe. When a delegation of officials investigated, however, they found no such offenses. Indeed, they remarked, the Wild West performers were "certainly the best looking, and apparently the best fed Indians we have ever seen." Cody was absolved of all charges.

Cody's treatment of the Native Americans eventually earned him special status among governmental agencies. Though there were many other "western" shows, none except Buffalo Bill's Wild West were not allowed to hire directly from the reservations. Cody alone was trusted in this regard.

Buffalo Bill proved his loyalty to the Native Americans on his Wild West tours. Before each show opened, he would ask each one of them to read his contract, making sure that nothing was left unclear. And while the show was on tour, Native Americans were given the same freedoms of any other performers. Few difficulties arose: "We have very little trouble with any of the natives," Cody reported. "They are a quiet, peaceable crowd, and our general policy is to let them settle any little difference that may arise among themselves; indeed, we rarely ever have occasion to interfere."

Those rare occasions of problems almost always could be attributed to a single source: alcohol. There were numerous instances of public drunkenness and alcohol-induced aggression among "Wild West" performers, and especially among the Native Americans. To try to avoid this, Cody ordered that half of their paychecks be withheld, so as to limit their alcoholic purchases. Even this effort proved futile, however, and several Native American performers ultimately had to be dismissed from the our because of their alcoholic tendencies. It was an unfortunate chapter in the history of Buffalo Bill's Wild West.

The Native Americans of Buffalo Bill's Wild West attracted a curious mix of respect and hostility from the crowds. On the one hand, Cody's shows depicted them as the war-whooping, scalp-gathering braves of Western legend. On the other hand, Cody introduced audiences to the proud and honorable side of Native Americans. Just as frontier attitudes had been skewed by these opposing forces -- respect and hostility -- so too was the Wild West skewed: alternatively respectful and hostile towards Native Americans.

Most of the scenes, it must be admitted, portrayed Native Americans as warlike, aggressive savages. Scenes such as "The Battle of Summit Springs," Attack on a Settler's Cabin,' and "Famous Attack on the Deadwood Stage Coach" were uniformly biased. Indians often were portrayed attacking innocent villagers, raping the wives of white setters, or scalping unfortunate cavalrymen. This certainly made for exciting entertainment, but was quite inaccurate historically.

Simply put, the Indians were the bad guys -- the enemy -- and the men of the U.S. Cavalry were the good guys. And, of course, the good guys always won.

How then can it be possible that the "Wild West" had an overall positive effect on white-Native American relations?

First, it is important to recall that Cody's show toured during this crucial time in the history of the American West. The Indian Wars on the frontier were approaching an end, and years of U.S. propaganda regarding war atrocities had stirred great hatred and resentment against Native Americans. Moreover, scientific and popular opinion confirmed the innate superiority of one race over another. and these "Indians" had show nothing of the culture and sophistication of their white counterparts. In all of these ways, racial antagonism and historical enmity poisoned the very core of white-Native American relations.

Into this environment, Cody introduced the Native Americans not only as fellow men and warriors, but as his friends. When the distinctly-unpopular Sitting Bull was introduced to U.S. audiences, for instance, he always had Buffalo bill standing beside him in friendship. Coming from a man of Cody's renown, the symbolism of this friendship had great significance and effect.

In the opening ceremonies, Cody always insisted that the Sioux should be the first group to enter the stadium behind him. This was considered a great honor, for the premier spot among this "Congress of the Rough Riders of the World" was something that audiences surely would not miss.

Other scenes, such as the "Race of Races," likewise gave Native Americans at least equal status to their European, South American, and Asian counterparts. Rather than simple savages, Native Americans often were portrayed as an independent nation, a nation which formed "the finest light cavalry in the world."

Native Americans were also asked to present scenes from their own culture, such as "Indians and Squaws Set Up Camp," "Buffalo Hunt," and "Scenes from Indian Life." There were even episodes depicting Native Americans as victims of westward expansion, forcibly ejected from their homeland.

After the Wild West shows were over, audience members also had the opportunity to meet and talk with the performers in their private teepees. These "traveling villages" not only satisfied enormous curiosity among visitors, but also helped to personalize what it meant to be a Native American. They added a human face to Native American culture, lifestyle, and beliefs.

For all of these reasons, audiences left Cody's show not only with thoughts of the turbulent, conflict-ridden wild West, but also with greater understanding of Native American culture. It certainly was biased and focused on the violent side of frontier relations, but Buffalo Bill's Wild West also offered another side to the story, a side of Native American life which was not widely trumpeted in contemporary society: the personal side.

How did Cody personally feel about Native Americans?

Again, there is no easy answer to Cody's relations with the Native Americans. In purely personal relations, however, Cody always gained the respect and friendship of his former adversaries. By every existing Native American account, he was a trusted and trustworthy friend.

As might be expected, government officials and newspaper reporters alike consulted Buffalo Bill as an expert on Native Americans. Whenever violence threatened to spill from the Indian reservations, they turned to Cody for comment. His reply was generally positive, and usually on the side of the Native Americans. "Cody has stated over and over again," his press manager once reported, "that [he] never yet found an Indian guilty of a treacherous act."

Or as Cody himself explained, "In nine cases out of ten where there is trouble between white men and Indians, it will be found that the white man is responsible Indians expect a man to keep his word. They can't understand how a man can lie."

And yet Cody still maintained his allegiance to the U.S. Army. With the 1891 Ghost Dance rebellion growing to a feverish pitch, Cody remarked that he might feel compelled to help squash the uprising. "I don't know yet whether I shall fight them or not," he said at the time. "It might not look exactly right for me to do so, for I have made a fortune out of them, but if they get to shedding innocent blood, I may -- if I can be of any service -- go up there." Apparently his duty to country and "innocent" victims outweighed his consideration of Native American conditions.

Perhaps the only way to reconcile the multi-dimensional nature of Buffalo Bill's relationship with his Native American actors is under the rubric of paternalism. He cared for them quite deeply, yet felt detached from their more primitive existence. "I really think that they enjoy this sort of life," he remarked. "But they are a queer, uncivilized crowd. Watch them eat. You see they can use a knife and fork and spoon in a rude, imitative way, but when they go back home, they will be happier eating with their fingers."

"Indians are as easily controlled as children," Cody admitted, "but you must keep your promises to them to the letter. That I have always done, even many years before I employed Indians for my Wild West show."

It would be impossible to determine Cody's relations with the Native Americans simply on the basis of his statements and our historical records. In truth, only those who actually lived and worked with Cody would know the complete story of his life. Yet perhaps for this reason it makes sense to interrogate those closest to the story: the Native Americans themselves.

What do existing accounts say about Cody? Their verdict is quite unanimous in favor of Cody's decency and fairness. They called him "Pahaska," or "long hair," and they considered him a friend. Black Elk spoke of Cody's "strong heart," and reportedly was touched by his spirit of generosity. Sitting Bull treasured a hat that Cody had given him, and reportedly grew quite angry when a relative once wore it. "My friend Long Hair gave me this hat," the great Sioux chief boasted," I value it highly, for the hand that placed it upon my head had a friendly feeling for me." And Chief Red Fox offered great praise to his deceased friend:

In my imagination, I can see his noble spirit winging over the lofty peak [of Lookout Mountain in Golden, CO], and I bow my head in memory of one who always impressed me with kindness and compassion, and enriched me with the deeply entrenched integrity of his character.

Ultimately, then, Buffalo Bill Cody was a positive force for Native Americans. By no means was he a model of perfection, nor was the Wild West and his personal mode of paternalism without serious flaws and negative repurcussions. Overall, however, Cody did much to improve the status of white-Native American relations, and he left behind an important guidepost for the future: a personal legacy of respect and friendship.

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